Global Fishing and its Impact on the Environment Essay Example for Free

Global Fishing and its Impact on the Environment Essay The demand of fish in the international market has been increasing in the last few years. This is because many researches on nutrition have revealed that consuming fish is one of the best healthy practices. Fish does not have a lot of fats and bad cholesterol and it is a good source of vitamins and natural nutrients. This paper is about the trends of fishing in the global arena and its impact on the environment. The paper will concern recreational and commercial both types of fishing and the problems they are causing to the marine environment. The current state of global fisheries, aquaculture and the environmental cost of fishing will be the main subjects of interest in this paper. Although many countries have started efforts to develop practices of sustainable fishing through developing the idea of fish farms, however, the main threat to the environment is recreational fishing. The impacts on the marine life itself and the fish population will be discussed in the paper. Current State of Global Fisheries There was a steady rise in fishing, according to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, until the mid 1990s when the trend became stable. In 2001, a study showed that the marine catch has been declining at a rate of 10% each year since the late 1980s. There have also been estimations that around 50% of the world’s fish reserves have been fully exploited, around 20% are overexploited and another 10% are depleted because of overfishing. The histogram graph below shows the increasing share of aqua culture in the total fishing, however, the largest share of the total fish catch is still for the fish being captured from free waters. Southeast Pacific regions contribute the most to the catch of fish globally. The fish that have been captured the most are anchovy and Chilean jack mackerel (Hart Reynolds, 2004). Figure 1- (Hart Reynolds, 2004) The research has also shown that almost 80% of the total fish captured was used for direct human consumption while other 20% went for further processing for non-consumption production. In the year 1997, the per capita consumption of fish has increased in the past 50 years from 9 kg per person to around 16 kg per person each year. This was the data for underdeveloped countries; however, the consumption in the developed countries has risen from 20kg to almost 28kg per capita per year. In the underdeveloped countries, the protein intake from the consumption of fish can form 20% of the total intake. In the developed countries and in the Southeastern Asian countries, the consumption is much higher (Hart Reynolds, 2004). The top ten countries which are the largest catchers of the total fish catches include China, Japan, India, United States, Russia and Indonesia. However, China is the largest catcher of fish as the total amount stands to around 12 million tons of fish (FAOSTAT online database, 2010). The demand of fish is stable at the moment but as the population rises, the demand for fish will also rise. It has been revealed that the people in the developed countries are more prone to eating fish as their per capita consumption is higher than people living in underdeveloped countries. Another point of concern is that the population is rising at a very high rate in countries such as India, Pakistan, Indonesia and the Middle-East where the catch of the fish is also the highest. Figure 2 Impact of Global Fishing on the Environment Today, the exploitation of the fishery resources and reserves has become a major environmental factor of concern for the scientists and environmentalists. The worldwide declines in the population of fish species have been blamed to the excessive commercial fishing and unrestrictive recreational fishing. A recent study has revealed that the total fish harvest from recreational activities may contribute up to almost 12% of the total catch of fish globally (Cooke, Steven, Cowx, 2004). Fish has been one of the most important food consumption resources that are at risk because of limitless recreational activities and commercial fishing. The potential contribution of fishing to the marine environment and the ecological system of the world has caused many problems in the environment already. Currently, the fish production is meeting the requirements of the population in the countries, but at a great environmental cost. The marine life is not only being endangered by the fishers but their breeding grounds have also been invaded by the commercial companies. These breeding grounds are the safe places for the fish. Though the fish are being bred in huge numbers, but their homes are being destroyed which does not allow the fish to be born. Although a fish can give birth to hundreds of its offspring in one season, but if these offspring are dead before they are born, then the ecological system in the waters is seriously disturbed. According to a research, the increasing pressure of fishing and exploitation of resources in marine life has caused a change in the ecological structure and the ecosystem. The fully developed fish and adult members of the fish are more fondly searched by the commercial and individuals as they render more profits and meat for the production. Therefore the adult population which is responsible for breeding and generating offspring are in great danger by the human activities in the seas. Climate change has also been attributed to the changes in the ecosystem which affect the marine life and decrease their population. In the future, therefore, the fish population, available for human consumption, is anticipated to fall and cause demand supply problems. The primary reasons for this are the attack of the humans on the marine life for consumption, recreational activities of the human individuals and the change in the global climate which is changing the living habitat of these fish (Planque, 2010). Aquaculture Production The term aquaculture is used for the farming of the fish and other marine species including aquatic plants, crustaceans and mollusks in an artificial environment which is fit for their breeding. This is done in order to protect the species of the fish which are getting extinct or for sustainable farming of fish. This practice is very good for the sustainability of the fish in free water as they are not hunted in their breeding grounds. When grown and fully ready, these fish are harvested by a company or an individual who has owned them throughout the period of growth and development (European Commission, 2007). This practice is the only option for meeting the demand of the human for fish consumption. Fishing for recreation has proved to be disastrous for the marine life and the water environment. The whole ecological system is disturbed because of excessive fishing. Aquaculture is mostly being performed for the human consumption but does not addresses the issue of recreational fishing. Aquaculture is also used to presence the dying species by providing the required temperature, environment and food for their existence. Many of these fish could be released in to the wild waters so that they could be used in the recreational activities (Stickney, 2009). Conclusion In order to keep the demand consistent with the supply for fish in the global market, the practice of aquaculture will have to be adopted. The main issues that the fish face are the recreational activities of the human, commercial overexploitation and the change in climate of the world. These problems are changing their habitat environment and hence these fish are getting endangered. However, we should keep in mind that all of the fish species are not being caught for human consumption. Hence, aquaculture will not be able to address this issue. Other strict rules and regulation will have to be implemented by the governments in order to stop the recreational killing of fish. Only the hunting of those fish should be allowed which are abundant in the waters. Aquaculture could be used to breed those fish which are primarily used for the consumption of human through providing an artificial environment where the fish can grow up in a protected way. Bibliography Cooke, Steven, Cowx, I. (2004). The Role of Recreational Fishing in Global Fish Crises. BioScience , 54 (9), 857-59. European Commission. (2007). Eurostat. Retrieved May 9, 2010, from Eurostat Pocketbook: http://epp. eurostat. ec. europa. eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-DW-07-001/EN/KS-DW-07-001-EN. PDF European Commission. (2009, September). Eurostat. Retrieved May 9, 2010, from Fishery Statistics: http://epp. eurostat. ec. europa. eu/statistics_explained/index. php/Fishery_statistics FAOSTAT online database. (2010). NationMaster. Retrieved May 9, 2010, from Environmental Statistics: http://www. nationmaster. com/graph/env_mar_fis_cat-environment-marine-fish-catch Hart, P. , Reynolds, J. (2004). Handbook of fish biology and fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing company. Planque, B. (2010). How does fishing alter marine populations and ecosystems sensitivity to climate? Journal of Marine Systems , 403-417. Stickney, R. (2009). Aquaculture an introductory text. Oxfordshire: Cambridge University Press.

Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America Essay Example for Free

Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America Essay The research gives the patient as well as the doctors and other healthcare professionals the education to be able to make the best decisions possible with treatments for each different individual as well as the support of the Government in this research. â€Å"The economics of medical product development determines how pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies establish their funding priorities. According to industry estimates, it takes an average of $800 million and 10-15 years to develop a new drug, medical device, or biologic and bring it to the market† [ (Resnick, 2003) ] Scope The overall scope of PhRMA is to do research in improving the quality of healthcare and how to do this. With the ultimate goal being patients receiving health care that is most efficient. Making sure that the research that is done is prioritized by the needs of the patients as well as society as a whole, having the research cover not only specific treatments costs and savings, but the costs of all healthcare treatments as a whole. As well as making sure that all technologies are used appropriately in all of healthcare. Design The design of PhRMA is to make sure that the research that is done is quality research. The data needs to be sufficient in nature as well as having the studies that are done show both the opportunities to improve as well as the strengths to improve upon. Making sure that the research that is done is up to date in this ever changing field so that it is providing the best results possible. The research needs to be both of a broad nature as well as a specifically direct nature, covering aspects that are important to society and the patients. Considering both economic issues and how well patients can be productive members of society, doing additional research to get patients to that point if they are not. Application PhRMA needs to make sure that the research that they are doing shows that not all patients are equal in the needs that they have medically and that if the research is not done on a personal level and done instead on a population level then the results will not show the individuals needs. In short, research that is done on a broader spectrum is only one way that can help people and the doctors to make an informed decision on care. With all of the technology that is out in the world of healthcare people needs to be informed on the other options that they may have for treatment. The government research should consider a balance in communicating the findings of its research. Giving access to peer reviewed results so that treatment decisions are well rounded before a decision is made. â€Å"Government decisions related to the funding and conduct of health outcomes research should be made through open, transparent procedures that ensure appropriate and timely involvement of stakeholders such as patients, health care professionals and medical researchers on issues such as proposed research goals, study designs and communication of study results. † [ (Resnick, 2003) ] In this communication, keeping in mind that all people can react differently to different treatments making sure to keep the needs of the patients as well as the value in mind. Discussion The article that I read was very interesting. I did not realize with the complication of research, especially with in the healthcare industry exactly how much of it really does affect the economy. Giving patients the variety in the different treatments that they receive can have a positive effect on the economy. It can over time change pricing (costs inputs), and with additional research that is constantly done on the variety of the treatments over time will help to create medical advances over time.  In the mission statement of PhRMA it states â€Å"To conduct effective advocacy for public policies that encourage discovery of important new medicines for patients by pharmaceutical and biotechnology research companies.

Non-standard English: Usage and attitudes

Non-standard English: Usage and attitudes Introduction Spoken language is a powerful method of communication that conveys more than intended referential information. Depending on the listeners attitude, a speakers accent or dialect may imply a number of characteristics such as social class and professionalism. Examples of non-standard linguistic features are discussed under Task 1; followed by summaries of two studies under Task 2, which focus on attitudes towards West Indian Patois (Edwards, 1986) and the Cockney accent (Giles Sassoon, 1982). Task 1 Thats the girl he gave the bracelet to. This sentence contains a grammatical, non-standard linguistic feature because it ends with the preposition to. In Standard English, a preposition usually proceeds a noun, hence the sentence should read: Thats the girl to whom he gave the bracelet. However, there are cases where sentences sound unnatural if they are arranged in a way that avoids a final proposition. This is usually seen in conversational English, for example: in relative clauses and questions which feature phrasal verbs, passive constructions, and short sentences which feature an infinitive or verbal noun. Nonetheless, in formal writing, it is considered better practice to avoid placing a preposition at the end of a sentence where it may seem stranded. (Preposition, 2008) Buffy the vampire slayer is dead cool. This sentence contains a lexical, non-standard linguistic feature because dead functions as an adverb of degree, such as very; the sentence should read, Buffy the vampire slayer is very cool, or of a similar effect. Dead typically functions as an adjective, meaning no longer alive, and is used in contexts such as a dead bodyor a dead issue. It has therefore undergone semantic change, and its meaning has been broadened. (Dead, 2017) My old man gave me a set of wheels for my birthday. This sentence contains lexical, non-standard linguistic features because slang is used. My old man is a colloquial, informal noun phrase meaning ones father or a womans husband or boyfriend; set of wheels is also a colloquial, informal noun phrase meaning a motor vehicle, as opposed to a literal set of wheels. According to Standard English, the sentence should read: My father gave me a motor vehicle for my birthday. The phrases have thus undergone semantic change. (Old man, 2017) The guy that works in the bar is really nice. This sentence contains a lexical, non-standard linguistic feature due to the use of the informal noun, guy, meaning man (Guy, 2017). There is also a grammatical, nonstandard linguistic feature because, in Standard English, that should not be used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is personal. A human antecedent is typically proceeded by who in a defining clause. An inanimate antecedent or a human but representative of a class is followed by that; for example, the chair that collapsed / the baby that laughed. In Standard English, the sentence should therefore read: The man who works in the bar is really nice. (That, 1998) Who did you see? This sentence contains a grammatical, non-standard linguistic feature because who is used in place of whom. In Standard English, who is a relative pronoun or an interrogative when it refers to the subject (who is there?). Whom is the objective form, hence the sentence should read: Whom did you see? However, the use of whom is declining and is often replaced by who in modern usage. (Who and whom, 2017) Task 2 A study of West Indian Patois, conducted by Viv Edwards (1986) A study of 45 British-born black adolescents in a West Midlands community (Edwards 1997: 409) reveals the attitudes of teachers and pupils towards West Indian Patois. Attitudes to Patois in the educational world are generally negative. The Association of Teachers of English to Pupils from Overseas (ATEPO 1970) describe West Indian language as babyish and lacking proper grammar (Edwards 1986: 25); the National Association of School Masters (1969) refer to West Indian language as a plantation English which is socially unacceptable and inadequate for communication (Edwards 1986: 25). These negative attitudes reflect some of the findings of Edwards (1986) West Midlands study. Conducted in Dudley, the study consisted of a judgement sample and comprised of 3 measures which were applied to the speech of 21 women and 24 men, aged between 16 and 23: frequency of Patois features, competence in Patois, and patterns of Patois usage. (Edwards 1997: 410). The studys findings are presented in 3 sets of interactions, as summarised below: Classroom Interaction, Pupil-Pupil Interactions and Pupil-Teacher Interactions. Classroom Interaction The stereotype that Patois speakers are limited to monolingualism was opposed by recordings of Black pupils using different language patterns in the classroom. Pupil-Pupil Interactions Contrary to the beliefs of the White community, Black pupils, who reduced the frequency and range of their nonstandard linguistic features, made a marked choice not to speak Standard English (despite their competence to speak both varieties). The use of Patois in the classroom was rare but virtually all black pupils could understand it, and used features in at least some situations. Within Black peer groups, it marked solidarity and acceptance; in mixed-raced groups, it functioned to exclude the White outsider. However, a few White pupils sought acceptance from Black friendship groups by using Patois, but their degree of competence varied. Some Black pupils responded with amusement and approval; most responded negatively to the White community for using a variety of English that was distinctively Black. Pupil-Teacher Interactions Black pupils used Patois to exclude their White teacher as means of defiance. Teachers then felt threatened when Patois was used in a confrontational way. Teachers who responded punitively elicited negative attitudes towards Patois. Other reports of teacher responses included learning nonstandard linguistic features in an attempt to understand Black dialect. Edwards (1997) concludes that teachers punitive responses and the use of Patois to exclude the White community are a reflection of the issues caused by negative attitudes towards nonstandard varieties of English. A study of Cockney, conducted by Howard Giles and Caroline Sassoon (1982) A study of a speakers accent and social class reveals the attitudes of 120 undergraduate listeners towards Cockney, in comparison to Received Pronunciation (RP). Based, on Ryan Sebastians (1980) study of the attitudes of middle class listeners towards Mexican-American in the USA, both studies were reminiscent of Lamberts (1967) matched-guise test and consisted of a tape-recording, followed by a questionnaire. Ryan Sebastian (1980) found that by disconfirming the listeners assumption of the accented speakers social class, their evaluations improved. Giles Sassoon (1982) referred to this as the Ryan Sebastian effect, which they later opposed in their hypothesis: awareness of a Cockney speakers social class would not attenuate significantly the unfavourable status associations commonly levied against nonstandard speech (pp. 306). The participants of the study (Ss) consisted of 63 males and 57 females, aged between 18 and 23. Ss heard 1 combination of a male students voice and social class information who was recorded reading two stimulus passages using RP and Cockney accents. The legitimacy of his bidialectal skills was assessed in a pilot study by 24 undergraduates. The studys dependant measures involved 5 small questionnaires, each consisting of 7-point rating scales and instructions. The questionnaires were: measures of Ss perception of the speakers social class, accent and formality of speech; social evaluation scales based on the speakers intelligence, success, friendliness and trustworthiness; belief similarity items which measured the extent that Ss agree[d] with the speaker on social issues such as the legislation of marijuana; social distance items which measured how close a relationship Ss were willing to have with the speaker; and social role items which determined Ss willingness to work with the speaker as subordinate to, superior over, or colleague with them (pp. 307). Ss were recorded in groups of up to 6 other undergraduates; they were handed the 5 questionnaires in the format of a response booklet with the social class information facing upwards. Once they had completed the task, they were debriefed and engaged in discussion. The results proved Giles Sassoons hypothesis; the awareness of the speakers middle class background did not prevent Ss from perceiving him as a low status evaluation when he used Cockney. Accent influenced the ratings on only 1 of 4 social issues; listeners shared more beliefs on the legislation of marijuana with the speaker when he used an RP accent; accent had no effect on social distance items; but the findings from the social role items showed that Ss preferred an RP speaker as their superordinate, and as a subordinate too (pp. 311). Giles Sassoon conclude that the awareness of a Cockney speakers middle class background does not prevent the stereotyped negative attitudes towards low status ratings (pp. 311). Conclusion The nonstandard linguistic features in Task 1 and the studies summarised in Task 2 portray several varieties of English. The mixed attitudes towards the widespread use of nonstandard linguistic features are a clear reflection of an ever-changing language. Word count: 1500 words References Allen, R. Fowler, H. (2008). Preposition. Pocket Fowlers Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com.idpproxy.reading.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780199232581.001.0001/acref-9780199232581-e-3016?rskey=4f5JCxresult=1 Allen, R. Fowler, H. (2008). Who and whom. Pocket Fowlers Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com.idpproxy.reading.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780199232581.001.0001/acref-9780199232581-e-4155?rskey=ducoglresult=2 Dead. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/dead Edwards, V. (1986). Language In A Black Community. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Edwards, V. (2007). Patois and the Politics of Protest: Black English in British Classrooms. In Coupland, N. Jaworski, A. Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook. (408-415). London: MacMillan Press. Fowler, H. Burchfield, R. (1998). That. The new Fowlers Modern English usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Giles, H. Sassoon, C. (1983). The effect of speakers accent, social class background and message style on British listeners social judgements. Language Communication, 3(3), 305-313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0271-5309(83)90006-x Guy. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/guy Lambert, W. E. (1967). A social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues. 23, 91- 109. Old man. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/old_man

Technology and the Invasion of Privacy Essay -- Exploratory Essays Res

Technology and the Invasion of Privacy As citizens of America we are all entitled to our rights of privacy. When something threatens this guaranteed privacy we tend to take extra precautions to prohibit prolonged violation. As the advancing world of technology continues to grow and expand, so do the amount of cases involving privacy invasion. Technology drives these privacy-invading crimes; however, crime also drives technology, creating a vicious cycle. Without technology an invader could not enter that of a stranger’s life. Conversely, without technology that same criminal would evade the law enforcers. So does technology protect citizens’ privacy, or does it expose one’s entire life? In regards to this question, one must consider: before the rise of the world of technology, privacy invasion was not a common issue. With this fact in mind it is not difficult to determine where the problem lies: technology threatens privacy. Computers are main technological features that allow criminals to step into unsuspecting victims lives. With a simple piggy-backing program hackers are able to track every keystroke made by the victim. One such program is called spyware, not to be confused with adware, which is often referred to interchangeably with spyware, but is potentially harmless (Louis 15). Spyware, hidden within downloaded software, implants itself deep within a computer’s hard drive, allowing it to track every move made by the user (Louis 16). Once inside a system, spyware can gather e-mail addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers. This gathered information is then transmitted across the internet to the author of the spyware, who then uses the newly gained information to determine which ads should target... ...and more anti-spywares that protect your computers from viruses, and better care taken by individuals (McGuire), Americans can begin to protect themselves from the privacy predators, and hopefully start a trend that will eventually put an end to the vicious cycle of technology vs. privacy.    Works Cited    McGuire, David.   "FTC Sues Spyware Suspects."   Washingtonpost.com Apr 2004. 9 Nov. 2004 <http://www.washingtonpost.com O'Reilly, John.   An Employer's Guide to Surveillance, Searches & Medical Examination.   Toronto: Thomson Canada Limited, 2003. "Protect Yourself Online."   Consumer Reports Sep. 2004:   12-19 Raphael, Louis.   "Spyware: Technology's Version of Big Brother." Computer Technology Review Feb. 2004: 12-16 Stead, Bette Ann.   Privacy and Rights In The Work Place.   Houston: University of Houston, College of Business Administration, 1998.

Biosphere 2 :: Papers

Biosphere 2 Biosphere 2 is a supersealed â€Å"greenhouse† enclosing an area of 3.15 acres. Exit and entry is through a double airlock. It consists of several different ecosystems within the â€Å"greenhouse.† It houses a tropical rainforest, savannah, scrub forest, desert, fresh- and salt-water marshes and a miniocean that even contains a coral reef. This biosphere is inhabited by over 4000 species in all. The biosphere is able to preserve it environment because; water vapor from evaporation and transpiration of plants is condensed to produce high amounts of rainfall over the tropical rainforest. From there the water runs back towards the marshes and ocean as is filters through the soil, providing for an ample supply of fresh water for the humans as well as the ecosystems. The carbon dioxide released from respiration is absorbed for photosynthesis and necessary oxygen is replenished. Thus, meeting the necessary requirements for a sustainable biosphere. Biosphere 2 is not completely self-sufficient, it does depend on solar energy, and the energy demands that are created to power the necessary machinery, would require another 30 acres of solar collectors. The conclusion of the â€Å"cycle† is that not everything went exactly as planned. The oxygen level at one point dropped and additional oxygen had to be added to compensate for the underestimated amount of oxygen used by the decomposers in the soil. Larger amounts of carbon dioxide were used because of chemical reactions with exposed concrete. A large number of the species introduced especially insects necessary for pollination, died off, requiring pollination of many plants by hand. Despite these drawbacks the water, soil, and nutrients they started with were the same as when finished, having gone through the cycle a countless number of times. We have learned from this experiment that it is possible to build a biosphere, that integrates humans, and have it function within the tolerable limits of sustainability. Future versions of this experiment may be used in constructing permanent space stations or for long distance space exploration. If we continue mistreating our present biosphere we may end up living in structures similar to Biosphere 2. In my opinion this experiment proved to be very valuable if we wish to set up colonies on the Moon or other planets. This experiment is the beginning of the necessary information that will be needed to construct a completely self-sufficient biosphere.

How does H. G. Wells make the dystopia of the Time machine credible? :: English Literature

How does H. G. Wells make the dystopia of the Time machine credible? THE TIME MACHINE ================ How does H. G. Wells make the dystopia of the Time machine credible? The future is a vast ignorance - so they say. But is it really? In The Time Machine Wells points out that it is possible to travel through time by bringing up the idea of the existence of the forth dimension, which according to Wells is time. Many of us picture the future as a utopia - an ideal dream world. I for one imagined it as a utopia. Wells presents to us the `clearer picture`. Initially, it seems like a utopia. But there is a note of pessimism to show how Wells imagines the future might be, therefore, presenting it as a dystopia to the audience as well as the reader - a warning to all of us. Of course Wells doesn't keep it simple. He makes sure he captures the reader's attention by the way he uses his language. But is this necessary? Does Wells really have to do this? Firstly, if he doesn't capture the reader 's attention then they won't be able to get the message. He does this to sweeten the pill. To make it easier for us to take in otherwise it will be of no use. He makes it plausible by using sensory detail. For example when the Time Traveller is time travelling he describes it as a "nightmare sensation of falling", he goes further by saying that he felt a "dumb confusedness" which might have been because things were happening too fast. Furthermore, he described it by saying that "the twinkling succession of darkness and light was excessively painful to the eye" and also the fact that he felt "faint and hazy". "My arms ached, my back was cramped, and I was trembling with the prolonged terror of a fall". All this detailed emotive language allows us to experience what the traveller does and so makes the events more believable. By using particular similes, Wells tries to make the future familiar. Imagine if he hadn't used similes then we would not know exactly what he was talking about. For example, "night came like the turning out of a lamp. You know when you turn out a lamp it happens so quickly so we as the reader or even the Time Traveller's audience know exactly what he is talking about when he describes it in such a way. It breaks down the message into smaller pieces, therefore, making it easier to understand. As the Time Traveller travelled through time, day and night passed so

Explain the principal social perspective

Functionalism is a structural (macro) perspective that suggests that our behaviour is influenced by the society is organised. They believe that the institutions have a major impact on how we behave in the society. The individuals are constrained by the society, and the functionalists views the individuals in the society as a puppets. Functionalists says we as an individual have little power about what we do and the institution influences us. This can be seen in society in form of laws, norms, values (norm underpins values), beliefs and relationship. This theory suggests that the individuals in the society must behave properly; otherwise, they are regarded as deviant and are punished. Functionalism believes that every part of the society are interdependent with each other, which helps society to keep going. It is almost like a human body, where different parts of the body has a function together, which keep it alive and healthy; this is called organic analogy. For instance, the family helps by bringing up the next generation about the patterns of shared and stable behaviour that are called social order. Different social institution such as, legal system, political system, health system, family system and education system work together to maintain a stable society from generation to generation. For instance, the legal system provides laws, norms that underpin values, safety, discipline and order and the health system provides free health services, family system provides help in reproduction that increases the economy. All of these institutions together to form an ‘integrated whole’ society or social structure. The major function of these social constitutions are to make individual to follow the norms that underpins values and internalize them, which leads to value consensus. According to Talcott Parson, society is based on value consensus where shared and common values and behavioural norms lead to a common culture. Consensus is an agreement in the society about the values, and have freedom, equality, justice and fairness. These values are acquired by passing down from generation to generation, through primary socialisation. These values benefit everybody equally, some the example of values that exist in our society are right for equality, justice and privacy. There are mechanism of social control in the society, like punishment and rewards. Socialisation and social control ensure that there is equilibrium in the society. The process of socialisation achieves equilibrium in the society, whereas family, religion, law and mass media, which are the agents of socialisation, are responsible for maintaining the equilibrium. The functionalist believes that the western societies are meritocratic, which means the system rewards the individual in the society based on their effort and talent and social mobility is possible in this system. They also believe that people in the society can achieve status by working hard and there is equality of opportunity in the society. Talcott Parsons proposed the functionalist approach, which considers health and illness and assumes negative definition of health. He described that illness is a form of deviance that distracts proper functioning of the society, in the same way that crime does. Ill members in the society must perform a social role where sick role consists of four elements, two of which are right and responsibilities. The rights associated with the sick role was to be excused from normal social obligation and be cared for, whereas the responsibilities were to take steps to get better and co-operating with the medical professionals such as doctors. This view suggests that ill must be cared for and must be dealt with as soon as possible in order for the society to run smoothly. 1. Marxism The founder of Marxism is Karl Marx (1818-1883), who was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist and revolutionary socialist. Marxism structural (macro) perspective, where our behaviour is determined by the way society is organised. The social institutions such as laws, rules and norms have big impact on how we behave and we are controlled by the society. Marxists believes that the society is not interdependent, instead it believes that economy is the base or infrastructure of the society, and our behaviour depends upon the economy of the society. Marxists sees the society as a system that operates to make profit for the upper class. Whereas the working class are socially engineered to conform the needs of the upper class who benefit from the societies using capitalist economic system. Capitalists exists all around the world and the economies of industrial societies in the west are based on capitalism. Marxists explains that the capitalists economies compromises two main social class; the capitalists and the workers. The upper class people were the capitalists who were regarded as powerful, whereas the workers or the labours were the lower class people and were seen as powerless puppets. The capitalists exploits the workers since they do not get recognition for what they do as get have minimum wage and make surplus profit by persuading the lower class to buy the goods by advertising. The capitalists are opposite of socialism since the capitalists control what we think and what we do, the working class people are ‘brain washed’ into accepting set of beliefs that benefits the capitalists. These messages are seen to be transmitted through the cultural institutions such as media, which are controlled by the capitalists to influence the workers. The capitalists creates the dominant values that benefits the powerful and disadvantages the powerless. For instance, the monarch claim their position as god gifted and the religion help supports their point, due to which the working class people are convinced to what have to say since they have faith in their religion. Inequality in capitalist societies still exists and is unfair but they do not recognise it because the capitalists convince them that it is their fault for not achieving what they want. For instance, the capitalists would convince working class by saying the GCSE result of upper class is higher than that of lower class because they have been able to provide private tutors for their children, and it would be their fault if their children got low grade, since they were not able to provide their children with private tutors. Marxist believes that the definition of health and illness and the health and social care services provided to the powerless serve the interests of the powerful dominant classes. The capitalists regard people who do not produce wealth as unhealthy. Marxists believe that doctors are the example of agents that work for capitalists interests rather than those of patients so that they can go to work as soon as possible and provide the capitalists with healthy work force. The government allows the capitalists to make profit from the products that cause health issues, such as alcohol and tobacco. The industries that capitalists establish cause to pollute the atmosphere and produce toxic waste that affect the people and get ill. This approach believes that illness is related to difference in the social class. For instance, poverty-stricken areas have higher levels of illness and have lower life expectancy. According to this approach, the government do no handle this issue as this would make people ill, as this leads this money and the capitalists would make advantage of it. 1. Feminists Feminism is a range of movements and ideologies that work towards goal, which establish and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal and social rights for women. Feminism seeks to establish equal opportunities for women in different sectors like education and employment and supports for equal rights and equality of women. The feminists believe that gender inequality still exists in today’s society. Feminism is a perspective that believes that women are disadvantaged in the society and should have equal rights with the men. The feminists are critical of patriarchy. Patriarchy is a social system where the men hold the power and authority. The women have fought throughout the history for their rights and equality, which caused creation of waves of feminism. The first wave was observed in the mid late 19th century, campaigning for the change in rights for the women in early 20th century. They campaigned for two main strategy; right to vote and right to be educated. In 1928, the women were given the right to vote, but only rich women over 30 who owned property were allowed. The second wave of feminism was observed from 1960s, this lead to the formation of Women’s Rights Movement (WRM) and Women’s Liberation Movement (WLM). These organisations campaigned for right to equal pay act, domestic violence, sex discrimination, employment, violence services, education, family and health & social care. WRM and WLM were successful in achieving their rights for Equal pay Act in (1970), Sex Discrimination Act (1975) and right to be educated and be employed. Due to variation in opinion of causes of gender inequality and solutions to it, there was formation of three types of feminism; liberal feminism, Marxist feminism and radical feminism. Liberal feminism proposed that gender inequality stills exists in the society because of social and cultural attitudes that is gained by the process of socialisation i.e. primary and secondary socialisation. Liberal feminist helped to promote equality through Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Act. Marxist feminism explained that the capitalists to earn profit using women. They would persuade women to buy groceries such as fabric softener, so that they would spend their money and exploit them. Radical feminism explains that the society is ruled by the men, whereas the female are oppressed, exploited and are regarded as second-class citizen. It states that men exploit women by relying on free domestic labour and men may use aggression to control women in the home. Through the gender role socialisation, wo men are convinced to accept female subordination and see motherhood as a key goal in life. The feminist writers have focused male domination in the medical profession and its effects on women. They are concerned with the way in which pregnancy and childbirth have been regarded as a medical issue rather than as natural process. Feminist writers have protested on the way which the medical professions and related pharmaceutical industries have given low priority about development and promotion of male contraceptives. It explains how women had to face medical conditions such as mental health, anxiety and depression using the contraceptives, due to which their position in the society is exploited. Theorist have been concerned about the impact of social inequality on women’s health and dual role of women. 1. Interactionism The founder of interactionism was Max Weber. Interpretivist describe that the society and the social structure are seen as the creation of individuals. Unlike functionalists, they see individuals of the society as actors not as puppets. The individuals have free will and are able to make choices of their own. Unlike in the functionalism, the power come from bottom to up. They believe that the people’s choices or decisions are influenced by how they make sense of social situations. For instance, marriage means different things to different person; an individual whose parents are divorced might have negative definition of marriage, whereas the individual who have grown up in a good family might have positive definition of marriage. The Interpretivist suggests that people make impression on how you perceive symbols, they make impression on what you wear. For instance, people will make assumption that you are smart, just because you wear glasses. These theorists are concerned with the small or micro scale situations rather than the systems, they focus on the individuals in social interaction situations. Interpretivist believe that our identity is based on how we see ourselves or how other sees us. For instance, if a student in the school is praised and us labelled as smart, then he/she might do better his/her studies as this helps to boost their self-esteem. We get influenced by media, friends and family about how we see ourselves. According to Browne labelling refers to â€Å"defining a person or a group in a certain way-as a particular ‘type‘ of person or a group†. According to Interpretivist people are attached to the labelled and it can actually damage some group of people such as disabled people. The person labelled behaves in the same way expected and they have fulfilled the prophecy and lived up to the label. Interactionist believe that health and illness are the product of social construction that affects people’s wellbeing. They believe that disease is socially constructed†. Disease does not exist as a social phenomenon until it is somehow perceived as existing† (Rosenberg 1989). This approach focuses on negotiation between the patients and medical practitioners. For instance, a female patient would feel comfortable to talk to female doctor about her reproductive health rather than a male doctor. They are concerned with labelling and self-image and social interaction differences affected by class, ethnicity and age. Symbolic interactionism is critical of Marxists and Functionalists as Interpretivist look individual as subjective through doctor and patient exchange. The argument here is that illness is a social diagnosis among actors rather than just a matter of physiological malfunction. 1. Postmodernism Postmodernism is an approach in sociology as well as in other subjects, which believes that society is changing rapidly and continuously, which is marked as an uncertainty and the social structure are being replaced by whole range of different and constantly changing social relationships. This theory believes that modern society was developed at around 1750s and has been replaced by the end of 20th century due to massive social change. The Functionalists and the Marxism perspective might be interested in modernity as they thought that if properly understood, societies could be improved. But the postmodernists argue that there is no longer a place in sociology for these type of theory. This theory suggests that the postmodern society has no progress, predictability (norms that people would predict to behave), order and continuity, due to which insecurities and anxiety has been developed in people living in postmodern society as people do not know how to behave and what is expected from others. Order, predictability and continuity are essential as it gives us routine and reassurance that provides us safety and security. Society has changed as it has gone through different industrial revolution or industrialisation, technological advances, urbanisation and secularisation. Industrialisation is the process of going from agricultural economy to heavy industrial/manufacturing economy. Secularisation is the decline of belief in religion due to rise of science whereas urbanisation means movement of people from rural areas to towns and cities. Postmodernists suggests that modern society no longer exists and we live in a postmodern era or in post modernity, where the society is media saturated. Due to the revolution of technology, globalisation has occurred where the world has become a smaller place to live in. The mass media has dominated our lives to the extent that we confuse media images with reality. This theory concludes that people in the postmodern society can have their own form of identities, how they want to see themselves or how they want to define themselves. There is diversity, choices and ‘pick and mix’ culture in this society. There is no imposition on people on how to behave and there is flexibility in the work. Due to fluidity and flexibility in the postmodern society, people might feel insecure and unsafe. 1. Collectivists and New Rights Collectivists Collectivists believes that their goal are more important than the individual goals because they believe that society as a whole has more importance than the individual alone. This theory focuses on the importance of the society and community and gives priority to the group goals than the individual goals. This approach aims to address the inequalities in the society due to different levels of wealth and status in the society. With an aim to sort out the inequalities, welfare state was established to get rid of five giant evils; want (poverty), idleness (unemployment), squalor (poor quality housing) and ignorance (underachievement). Services were made free after these giant evils were identified. To eradicate disease existing in the society, NHS service was established in 1948 to make sure that the people lived healthy life. The basic principle of collectivism is to provide people with education, health and social services for the individuals in the society who cannot afford it through taxes then access on the basis of rights as opposed to the ability to pay. These helped to provide foundation for the Welfare State which is based on the collectivists principle ‘cradle to grave’ or child to old age pension. This approach was adopted by The Labour Party who represented workers which aimed for the redistribution of wealth through taxes. In this policy, the government would cut off taxes from the wealthy people and share it with the poor (shares some ideas with Marxists). Collectivists believes that we have equal rights and the government should administer responsibility for Welfare State. The New Rights criticises the Collectivism as it creates the dependency culture. They point out that people become irresponsible, lazy and don not work as benefits are demotivating for the people. New rights The New Right was popular during 1980s. They are the political movement with a considerable cultural influence that looks at individualism and distrust of the state as controlling and interfering in what is essentially the private world of the individual. They proposed to cut the public spending and cut taxes. They wanted the rich people to have more money to spend money as they choose. The New rights was critical of Collectivists stating that the rising costs to government of the welfare state were preventing the economic growth and the individuals were becoming dependant on the welfare state. The New Rights were critical of public services owned/controlled by the government and they preferred pro private services e.g. education and health care. The New Right is argued to favour ‘the rich’, but they believe that everybody in the society has equal opportunity, so anyone can become rich. E.g. Alan Sugar. They believe that people must be responsible for their own and their family’s welfare and they should not be dependent on the government. The New Rights are completely opposite to Collectivism. The most radical New Rights would abolish the Welfare State. g) Bio-medical and social models Bio medical Model Biomedical model focuses on the physical or biological aspects of disease and illness. The doctors or the health care professionals are associated with the care and treatment of diseases in this model of health. The bio medical model accept a ‘negative’ definition of health. The negative definition of health explains that the individual believes that they have good state of health and wellbeing because they have absence of physical illness, disease, injury, mental stress, free from pain and discomfort. The bio medical model of is dominant model in our society since it is based on objectivity thus this model has influenced or convinced people in the society. This model emphasises on diagnosis and treatment of the individuals separately from their living condition, due to which this model is not holistic approach. The reasons for illness are not at the centre of biomedical model. This model believes that health is a biological normality and describe that having ill health is deviant. This model believes that the disease is caused by identical factors such as germs, genes and accidents. They can be identified by having examination tests like blood, urine, saliva test, X-ray and MRI. They accept that the professionals diagnose disease then treatment is identified and cure is offered to the patient. The professionals views the human body as a machine and see things very clinically and do not really take consideration to people’s feeling. They often promote the view that disease or illness is temporary. This model indicates that we all have equal chance of getting ill and some people get ill due to weak health, whereas some people get ill due to factors such as weak sanitation. It assumes that medical treatment has had the most important impact on improving the health of individual. For instance, the NHS helps in the prolonged and preserves life, but this can be argued as health of an individual had already started to get better due to access to clean water, exercise and diet. The strength of bio medical model of health is that it is based on scientific knowledge and research and has provided many effective treatments for disease and physical condition. The bio medical model of health has be successful to provide many effective cure and treatments for disease throughout the history of humankind. The weakness of biomedical model of health is that the treatments can be expensive and require training or expertise to deliver and this model focuses on the individual and pays insufficient attention to environmental and social factors, which is not a holistic approach. Social Model The social model accepts the positive definition of health. The positive definition of health can be described as the achievement and maintenance of physical fitness and mental stability. This model believes that health is a relative concept and a social construct. For instance, being voluptuous centuries ago was a sign of good health, but today’s day it is regarded as health issue or overweight. This model claims that ill health is caused due to social factors (including environmental factors). For instance people can get ill because of the unhealthy diet they are consuming, poor living condition or pollution. This model is critical of ‘modern’ medicine, which are elements of biomedical model. E.g. Iatrogenisis medicine caused deformity in the baby consumed by pregnant mother eaten for nausea sickness. It argues with the biomedical model saying that illness is not randomly distributed and are critical of the assumption that medical treatments has had the most important impact on improving health. Social model can explain why population level health improvements were achieved when social conditions improved late 19th/early 20th centuries due to the improvement of sanitation and supply of clean water the health of population improved, and argues it was not because free health services was delivered to the people. The strengths of social model of health is that it focuses population health and takes a broad range of factors into account and it is widely used and understood by health care practitioners in developed countries. This model offers board and flexible and inclusive way of understanding health and illness. Whereas the weakness of this model is they do not have a clear way of identifying or classifying health problems and this model cannot explain illness or many mental health problems where there are no physical signs or symptoms, which can be distressing. The social model cannot be used to address an individual’s health problems, especially where emergency care is needed.